In addition, these animals are more exploratory, and perform better at spatial learning and memory tasks (for review, see Champagne and Curley 2009). For example, it has been reported that infant rats whose mothers engaged in a high rate of arched back nursing and licking/grooming exhibit markedly lower hormonal reactions in a stressful situation in adulthood ( Liu et al. Numerous animal studies have also demonstrated the importance of early experiences for later functioning. 2013) both of these structures are important for emotion regulation in humans ( Hartley and Phelps 2013). In another study, these individuals exhibited amygdala hyperactivity as well as accelerated maturation of amygdala–prefrontal cortex connectivity ( Gee et al. Further, on a neural level, they also exhibited altered maturation of the nucleus accumbens, a structure involved in reward learning. In one study it was reported that these individuals were more likely to experience depression in adolescence ( Goff et al.
#Infantile amnesia series
In a striking series of studies, Tottenham and colleagues examined children who experienced maternal deprivation in the first two years of life (i.e., had been reared in an orphanage). For example, there is substantial evidence that the quality of maternal care experienced early in life affects the behavioral, neural, and physiological responses of the offspring as they mature. Specifically, if early experiences cannot be explicitly recalled, how can they influence an individual's functioning later in life? Although this question remains unanswered, there is an overwhelming amount of evidence supporting the idea that early experiences are critical for later functioning.
The fact that early memories are so fragile has resulted in a great deal of controversy over the importance of early experiences on later functioning (e.g., Fraley et al. 2004), memories formed earlier in development are usually quite fragile and rapidly forgotten (a phenomenon known as “infantile” or “childhood” amnesia ). While memories acquired in adulthood are generally well remembered and persistent (e.g., Gale et al.
Memory, along with most other cognitive abilities, develops across the lifespan ( Ofen and Shing 2013). A greater understanding of the characteristics of this memory trace will provide novel insights into how some memories are left behind in childhood while others are carried with us, at least in some form, for a lifetime. Excitingly, the discovery of this physical trace will allow us to explore previously untestable issues in new ways, from whether forgetting is due to a failure in retrieval or storage to how memories can be recovered after extended periods of time. Instead, there appears to be a memory “trace” that persists in the face of forgetting which continues to affect a variety of behavioral responses later in life. Specifically, we describe evidence showing that these forgotten early-acquired memories have not permanently decayed from storage. This review presents one potential solution to this paradox by considering what happens to an early memory after it has been forgotten. This raises the question of how early memories can be so influential if they cannot be recalled. Nonetheless, decades of research in both humans and nonhuman animals demonstrate the importance of early life experiences on later physical, mental, and emotional functioning.
Unlike adult memories that can be remembered for many years, memories that are formed early in life are more fragile and susceptible to being forgotten (a phenomenon known as “infantile” or “childhood” amnesia).
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